Pythagoras of Samos (580 BC - 500 BC)

Father of theoretical dualism and the first thinker to call himself a philosopher, Pythagoras challenges the Greek traditions with his religious doctrines: the soul’s immortality, metempsychosis, eternal recurrence and all animate beings’ consubstantiality. Philosophically, Pythagoras considers that numbers make the ultimate, unseen essence of the universe since through mathematics everything can be predicted and measured in rhythmic patterns or cycles. Celestial bodies move in accordance with the mathematical ratios that govern tuneful musical intervals in order to produce the harmony of the spheres. The cosmos exists by inhaling from the infinite chaos outside it an air similar to both Anaximene’s aer (a mist-like gas for which aether makes the purer version) and Anaximander’s apeiron. The mechanism through which the boundless mass can take shape is the mathematical limit, which gives significance and stability. Without numerical relationships the universe will collapse just as the human society cannot function in the absence of moral principles: “No man is free who cannot command himself.” The first to state that the thought processes and the soul are located in the brain (not in the heart), Pythagoras considers human freedom to be the ability to subordinate passions to reason.