FREE WILL

by those who coined the term

This entry introduces the central concept explored throughout the blog. For orientation, see the “Start Here” and “Map” pages on the left sidebar menu.

Translated as free will, the Latin phrase liber arbiter (coined by early European philosophers) literally means independent arbitrator, where the quality of arbitrator refers to human beings' faculty to decide on the worth of anything, whereas that of independent refers to their capacity of self-objectivation. Regarded as Man's ability to cause his own course of actions by his own means, free will refers to the control of instinctual and emotional behavior through reason.

The present inquiry reviews in brief all the philosophical ideas (in metaphysics, epistemology and ethics) relevant to the problem of liber arbiter put forth by ancient European thinkers. Scroll down the list in the side bar and check the concise articles on each philosopher’s view on free will.

Anicius Manlinus Severinus Boethius (475 - 526)

For Boethius, Neoplatonist universals are only objects of rational minds. A rational nature possesses free will as its acts of volition cannot belong to physical causal chains. Reason allows for a higher degree of freedom (defined as Man's capability of causing his own course of actions by his own means). The more blinded by ignorance or obssessed with vicious passions, the more enslaved; conversely, the more rational, the more free.

Modern Reflection  

Boethius’s reconciliation of divine foreknowledge with human freedom anticipates modern debates about determinism, time, and the nature of perspective. His idea that God sees all moments simultaneously resembles contemporary discussions about block‑universe theories in physics. While his theological framework differs from secular approaches, his distinction between necessity and conditionality remains influential in philosophy of action. He reminds modern readers that freedom can be understood not only through causal analysis but also through the standpoint from which events are viewed.

Proclus Lycaeus (412 - 485)

Proclus holds the One (Neoplatonist unifying divine principle beyond being and thought) as the origin of the entire existence. The One fosters the Intellect situated outside time, and it is due to this divine Mind that multiplicity is possible in both thought and existence. Processuality arises with the Intellect's temporal product, the Soul, whose individual occurrences tend to be overpowered by the material world. Man will attain freedom only insomuch as he can, through reason, liberate his soul from the domination of bodily passions.

Modern Reflection  

Proclus’s intricate system of emanation and return mirrors modern attempts to understand complex systems through hierarchical structures and interdependent layers. His belief that freedom involves participating consciously in the order of reality parallels contemporary discussions about meaning, purpose, and the search for coherence in a fragmented world. Although his metaphysical architecture is far removed from modern science, his insistence that the mind seeks patterns and unity remains relevant. He suggests that agency grows when we understand how our actions fit within larger structures of value and order.

Aurelius Augustinus (354-430)

For Augustinus, God is the immutable origin of the rationally hierarchical universe, in which there is a fundamental contrast between the intelligible and the sensible. The world of the sense includes only non-shareable transitory objects whereas the intelligible realm contains public, eternal realities. Man’s free will is defined as the rational choice between perishable objects and immutable ones. Augustinus shows that the compatibility of divine predestination (as well as foreknowledge) and freedom of will derives from Man’s responsibility for his choices.

Plotinus (204 – 270)

Founder of Neoplatonism, Plotinus states that the core of all existence is the indefinable One, whose Intellect makes the primal principle of the universe. The creative action of this divine Mind fosters the Soul, the place where the world takes objective shape. Individual souls must employ their power of conscious will in order to free themselves from the limits of their material reliance and contemplate the higher order of reality. Plotinus is the first thinker to put forth the idea that human happiness is independent of the physical world and can only be attained within consciousness due to Man’s faculty of reason.

Modern Reflection  

Plotinus’s idea that the self is layered (ranging from the embodied personality to a higher, unified intellect) anticipates modern discussions about consciousness, depth psychology, and the distinction between surface experience and deeper awareness. His view that freedom increases as we align with our highest capacities resembles contemporary ideas about self‑actualization and inner coherence. While his metaphysics can feel remote to modern readers, his emphasis on inward attention and the cultivation of clarity resonates strongly in an age of distraction. He offers a vision of agency grounded not in external choice but in the quality of one’s inner life.

Epictetus (55 – 135)

Man is free to manage his existence by accepting what is divinely predetermined and making appropriate choices when it comes to his own proceedings. Epictetus states that personal fulfillment depends largely on the individual character. The character can become a decisive factor in being in charge of one’s life through assiduous preparation as to how to control one’s perceptions, impulses to act (or not to act) and irrational drives.

Modern Reflection  

Epictetus’s distinction between what is in our control and what is not has become a cornerstone of modern psychology, especially cognitive‑behavioral therapy. His view of freedom as rational self‑governance resonates strongly in an age of anxiety, distraction, and external pressure. At the same time, his strict acceptance of fate can feel challenging to modern readers who value autonomy and social change. Yet his core insight remains powerful: freedom begins with attention to our own judgments and the discipline to act on them.

Seneca (4 BC – AD 65)

"A well governed appetite is the greater part of liberty," this theoretician of free will points out. Seneca insists that natural events should be explained through natural laws. Although the order of things is divinely predetermined, the soul (which is corporeal, monadic and rational) allows knowledge to influence proceeding. Inner impulses will lead to action in the absence of external impediments. Man manifests freedom of will in that he can control his actions by means of judgment and perform voluntary, virtuous deeds.

Modern Reflection  

Seneca’s reflections on anger, fear, and the instability of fortune read like early explorations of emotional intelligence. His view that freedom lies in mastering destructive impulses aligns with modern research on self‑regulation and resilience. At the same time, his wealth and political entanglements complicate his message for contemporary audiences, raising questions about privilege and moral consistency. Still, his writings offer a vivid reminder that freedom is inseparable from the work of shaping one’s character.